fully: Dictionary Information

Fully adv. 1 completely, entirely (am fully aware). 2 at least (fully 60).

fully: Geographic Locations

2660700 Fully Fully Fuliacum,fei li,菲利 46.13851 7.11468 P PPL CH VS 2307 6133 5922 471 Europe/Zurich 2013-02-27

fully: Historical Excerpts

Law Codes YLONIA. Code of Laws of Hamli. Important source of early sorganization, cl 750 bc; code for’d responsibilities of tenants, sional men, laborers; provided ■operty, wages, fees, slavery, do: relations, crime; male rights lount; punishment dependent on standing; criminal law based on lionis (‘an eye for an eye’); profof appeal; written evidence i;, babylonians first people to and fully define right of private rty. SREW. Mosaic Law. Evolved Bc; influenced by Egyptians, Suns; general tone more humane noral than Hammurabic.





Egypt Early or Old Kingdom. Step pyramids and series of maslabas (truncated pyramidal tomb forms) constructed. Pyramid Age. 4th dynasty, c2700c2560 (dates still uncertain) Tombs built at Gizeh; for pharaohs Khufu (Cheops), Khafre, and Menkaure; made possible by strong monarchical system, vast resources of stone and labor; majestic monuments; sculpture and relief carvings such as statue of Khafre, show same high level of achievement, preservation of traditions, great accuracy; beautifully made furniture, jewelry. Middle Kingdom, c2100-cl800. Tombs of kings and queens carved into hills facing Nile; important nobles built cliff tombs; painting used extensively, showing increasing freedom from conventionalization: fine examples of sculpture, portraits of Amenemhet III, Senusret III; rare naturalism, individualization; first use of obelisks. New Kingdom (or Empire). cl570cllOO. Famous for temple building, reflecting increased power of priests; temples of Amon, Karnak, Luxor, Horus at Edfu, magnificent examples of Empire style; plan consisted of sacred way flanked by sphinxes. Pylons (huge towerlike walls at entrance), courtyards, colonnaded areas, vast Hyposlyle (tall columns) halls, and sanctuary; windows used to fill space between two levels on early, fully developed clerestory. Temple of Hatshepsut. At Deir elBahri, part of cliff tombs in Valley of Kings, near Thebes; unique in many ways; severely simple, complete harmony of design and background; three colonnaded terraces outstanding. Sculpture. Stimulated probably by akhnaton’s religious revolt, sculpture became naturalistic in radical departure of brief duration: heads of Akhnaton and wife, Nefertiti, striking examples; relief sculpture showed freedom of expression; later work returned to traditional colossal, rigid statues of pharaohs.





Asia INDIA. Architecture. Use of stone for building and for sculpture began with Mauryan Dynasty; increased under Asoka, who as convert to Buddhism, erected monuments in honor of Buddha; lats (pillars) set up along Buddha s legendary route, highways; edicts inscribed on base (western style); pillars 40 to 50 feet high, single shafts of beautifully polished stone, great engineering feat; capitals had carved ornamentation, showing Persian and Greek influence; Lion capital, Sarnatli; bull column, Rampura; Asoka built tliousands of stupas (burial mounds or domes); shrines containing relics of Buddha or saints; only, core remains of great stupa at Sanclii. Sculpture. outstanding work of period seen in reliefs on rails and intricately carved gateways of stupas; illustrated legends of Buddha’s life; many freestanding statues; all work shows strong western influence, but with unique Indian quality of expression; rock-cut sanctuaries (chaityas) popular under Asoka; earliest monastic c.avcs, Barabar Hills, Nagarjuni; earliest chaitya-ha.ll, basilica-type catliedral, hewn from rock at Bhajja, 2d century: largest, most magnificent cave-temple, Karli, near Bombay, begun 1st century; frescoes decorated walls, Ajanta; extraordinary scenes from Jakata Talcs. CHINA. Sculpture. Found in tombs; fresh, often humorous; ricli imagery in animals. Excellent lacquer-ware; painting found in tombs; technique of calligraphy on silk developed.





Euripides. Dramatist; third and most renowned of Greek tragic poets; less popular in own time, fame has equaled or surpassed that of Sophocles and Aescliylus; introduced spirit of humanism and rationalism, discarded myth of gods superiority; attempted to free drama from conventional hero as subject: dealt tvith human beings; sympathetic portrayal of women, love; masterpiece, Medea, theme, disastrous results of uncontrolled passions of anger and jealousy; Iphigenia in Tauris, well-constructed, excellent suspense, melodrama; Cyclops, only complete extant satyr play; Alcestis, one of earliest and most appealing plays, presents memorable tragic character; l)Tic quality of choral passages. Aristophanes. Greatest ■writer of Greek comedies; frank in criticism of political figures; Lysistrata, ribald political satire; The Clouds, satire on Socrates and Sophists, influential popular play; The Frogs, criticized.Aeschylus and Euripides; attacked Athenian decadence, excellent parody; The Birds, amazing fantasy of escape. Rome Plautus (Titus Maccius Plautus). Comic poet; modeled comedies on Menander; vigorous portrayal of high society; narrow range of plot, characterization, but great variety of treatment; rough, racy, vernacular Latin; situation comedy, stock characters: Amphitryon, adapted by later dramatists; Aulularia (Pot of Gold) Terence (Publius Terentius Afer) Dramatist; influenced by Menander; free adaptation of well-knotvn comedies; The Eunuch, though condemned as immoral, most successful play; amusing, teclinically superior, skillfully united double plot; Phormio, delightful farce. Mime. Adaptation of Doric form; popular; immoral, satirical, outspoken; employed numerous actors; grotesque masks, bright costumes; most famous during 1st century bc. Others. Catullus, Decimus, Laberius, Lentulus, Philistion, Publius Syrus.





Asio INDIA. Gandharan Art. Term applied to school of arcliitecture, sculpture, painting; flourished lst-7th centuries AD, northwestern India; reached height under Kanishka, cl44; strongly Buddhist; first representation of Buddha believed made here; early Buddhas had head of Greek Apollo, dressed in toga, cars ed in Augustan style reflecting greco-roman influence; standing Buddha, Hoti Mardan, near Peshawar, late 2nd century; faces became more masklike, more Oriental with time; narrative reliefs reflected Roman influence and workmanship. Mathuran Art. Completely Indian, contemporary with Gandhara’s; earliest, entirely Indian representation of Buddha in sculpture; life-size standing Buddha, Sarnath, 2nd century; certain fixed canons of proportion developed; system similar to Egyptian and early Greek; Indian type seated Buddha shows trinity; western influence slight except in reliefs through Gandhara. Deccan or Andhra Style. influential style of central India, late 2nd, 3rd centuries; Great Stupa, Amaravati, outstanding example of sculpture, reliefs; works show Gandharan influence; more abstract in concept; ivorylike delicacy and precision. Golden Age, Guptan Art. National genius fully expressed; rock cut chaitya-ham still accepted architectural style; decoration more elaborate; freestanding chailyas appeared, Sanchi; Hindu and Buddhist arcliitects developed ce//a-type temple plan, with columned portico, Sikhara. Sculpture. First representation of both Buddhist and Brahman subjects; first four-armed Sivas, Buddhas with large decorated nimbuses; Buddha of Matliura, outstanding example of majestic serenity, seldom surpassed: Sarnath, center of Buddhist sculpture, produced high-relicf statue of Buddha preaching first sermon, masterpiece, use of metal, copper ratlicr than bronze, seen in excellent Buddha from Sultanganj; monolithic lion pillars.





INDIA. With the disintegration of the Gupta Empire about 500 northern (like central and southern) India became a fragmented pattern of competing states. It was reunited about 740 by the gurjara-prathihara kings, (7401036) who successfully resisted Moslem attempts to invade India. This long-sustained resistance collapsed at the close of the 10th century. Weakened by political divisions, and with its rich temples offering a tempting prize to the despoiler, India succumbed to the Moslem attacks. Subaktagin (977-997), founder of the Ghaznavid Dynasty, extended his conquests to the Indus. After 998 his son, Mahmud of Ghazni, led his Moslem tvarriors in repeated raids that opened (cl 000) a new period of Indian history, the era of Moslem conquest. Americas The First Mayan Empire (c3l7987), which produced a civilization and impressive cities in Guatemala (U.axatun, Copan, Palenque, etc.) was follotved by a Second (New) Mayan Empire, (c987-1600) which developed in Yucatan where the leading city states were chichen-itza, Mayapan, and Uxmal. Mayan civilization influenced the peoples of southern Mexico. In South America a second civilization flourished in the Andean highlands, from Columbia to Chile. Though less advanced than the Maya intellectually and artistically, tlie.Andean peoples had produced an independent civilization by 1000. There can be little doubt that all these civilizations represented the culmination of prehistoric cultures tlrat had evolved for five to ten thousand years.





ENGLAND. With the decline of the Fairs, Market Day, controlled by the towns, gained in importance; regular supply of needed goods and money brought into towns; foreign merchandise introduced; new industry stimulated; Carta mercatoria, 1303, granted hanses (flemish-london hansa and Hanseatic League) and other merchants freedom of trade and safe conduct in return for payment of custom dues; following the plague, decline in population, together tvith war prosperity, resulted in rise of prices and wages, causing Statutes of Laborers to be passed by royal proclamation, 1349, forcing all able-bodied men not otherwise employed to %vork the land at standard wages; economic and social crisis continued; with passage of graduated poll tax to pay war expenses, 1379, tension mounted, climaxed by peasants’ Revolt, 1381; revolt failed, but was evidence of growing determination of serfs to gain freedom; early Navigation Act, 1381, established trend toward economic intervention in commerce by state. Central Europe GERMANY AND FLANDERS. Hanseatic League still powerful, comprised 90 towns, including Bruges, Flanders, terminus point and great commercial center; inland German cities of Leipzig and Magdeburg; and great Rhine port of Cologne; during this period the League virtually monopolized trade of northern Europe; there also were offices and warehouses in London, Stockholm, Bergen, and Novgorod. Pope granted commercial freedom to the Teutonic Knights in 1263, and they successfully competed with the towns. Eastern Europe Hexabiblos, Byzantine adaptation of Roman civil law, in 6 books with 80 titles, by harmenopulos, judge of thessalonica, published and adopted, 1345.





Middle East PERSIA. Following the death o£ Tamerlane in 1405, Persia (Iran) was ruled by his successors (tinrurids) until 1469. Though threatened by the expanding power of the Ottoman Turks the Persians resisted tliem successfully. But they lost ground to the Turkoman rulers in the north ■who conquered the area below the Caucasus mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. In 1469 the Turkoman ruler Uzun Hasan defeated and killed the last Timurid sultan and added Iran to his dominions. In 1500 a new shah, Ismail, assumed control and founded the Safavid Dynasty in Iran. General Yet it was significant tliat, while the Moslem power increased so strongly in the East, that of Spain and Portugal was rising in the West. The Spaniards began to occupy the Canary Islands in 1407; the Portuguese claimed the Madeira Islands in 1418 and the Azores in 1427. These early ventures into the Atlantic were to be followed by cpocli-making exploration before the 15tli century ended. The capture of constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453) ended the long history of tlie Eastern Roman Empire. The same century that saw the Moslems expelled from their last stronghold in Spain (Granada) also MW them drive deep into southeastern Europe. Their gains constituted a grave danger to Europe. The Venetian Republic fought tliem four times during die century but lost most of its outposts in die eastern mediterranean and was reduced to paying tribMie for permission to trade in the Black Sea.





Western Europe PORTUGAL. ‘Golden Age’ began with period of prosperity and prestige; Henry the Navigator, great patron of cosmography, sent out annual expeditions from 1418 until his death in attempt to open direct communication with Guinea: expeditions carefully planned to find sea route to Ethiopia and India; African coast explored; permanent settlements on islands of Madeira and Azores established; Cape Verde Islands discovered; trade with Guinea coast begun; after Henry s death, explorations continued, culminating in voyage of Vasco da Gama around Cape of Good Hope to Calicut, India: Ordenacoes Affonsinas, first great law code of Portugal, enacted. SPAIN. Royal power restored in Castile: by charter revision towns were made centers of resistance to feudal aggression; confiscation of property of expelled Jews and Moors increased financial power of crown, but injured economy; jealousy at Portuguese enterprise led to Columbus expedition to India which, 1492, reached New World instead, beginning period of exploration and conquest; first public bank of deposit opened in Barcelona, 1401; Valencia, 1407; Libro de Montalvo, first codification of Spanish law (Castile), 1485. FRANCE. Cabochian revolt in Paris, demanding reforms, 1413; permanent tax, the Taille, established by Charles VII, 1439. Jacques Coeur. Merchant prince: founder of French trade in the Levant; used his fortune to aid Charles VII in struggle with England; one of most prosperous capitalists of century. ITALY. Florence, defeated in battles, lost credit, bankruptcies resulting; by 1427, taxation refoTin, catasio, income tax, tended to be more equitable; replaced by progressive income tax, 1440; Lorenzo de Medici forced to debase currency, increase taxation; business depression caused decline in Florentine prosperity; in Milan, Ludovico SEorza beautified city, improved irrigation and agriculture. Tights.Jdllbw^edt:ariaiin^)jiT^^





13) from which Russia emerged under Michael Romanov (1613-45). This first czar of the Romanov dynasty, a mediocre ruler, ceded territory to Stveden and Poland. During his reign the Russian advance through Siberia continued until the vanguard readied the Pacific. Middlo East OTTOMAN EMPIRE. fortunately for Europe the Turks failed to inter vene during the Thirty Years War. They had lost Baghdad in their struggles (1602-22) against Abbas the Great of Persia and fought sucewsfully (1630-38) to recover it from his





Western Europe ITALY. Caravaggio, michelangelo da (Merighi) Founder of Realist school in Rome; one of earliest masters of extreme form of chiaroscuro; use of humble peasant as subject, new departure; influenced Ribera and Spanish school. Bernini, Lorenzo. Master of Baroque sculpture, architecture; famous for expressive portraiture; worked for Louis XIV, France; great work at St. Peter’s. Guido Reni. Known for grandeur of style, using tones of gold, silver; tendency toward voluptuous sentimentality; rival of Caravaggio. FRANCE. Poussin, Nicolas. Classical painter; compositions carefully organized, highly disciplined; known for serene landscapes, classical allegories; influenced Cezanne. Mansart, Francois. outstanding architect; noted for pure classical design; influenced christopher Wren. Le Nain, Antoine. Important for ‘genre’ pictures portraying humble peasants, made at time when allegorical compositions were popular; sombre palette; worked with brothers, Louis and Mathieu. Callot, Jacques. 1592-1625. Engraver, etcher; probably first to use hard grounds; excellent technician; famed for Commedia delVArte. SPAIN. Ribera, Jose. Religious artist; popular in Italy where he studied; combined mysticism, realism in typical Spanish fashion; magnificent color. Zurbardn, Francisco de. Religious artist; realist school, Seville; painted monastic life; beautiful, reserved color; simplicity, tenderness. Herrera, Francisco de. Founder, nat-. uralistic school, Seville; teacher of Velasquez; excellent draughtsman. Monfanes, Juan. cl568-1649. Sculptor; polychrome figures in wood. England! Jones, Inigo. Architect; finest work i^’mbodies Palladian principles; introdi^iced severely classic style marking startling point of Baroque and Georgian joeriods in England.





Western Europe PRANCE. The second half of the 17th century (or to be more specific the period 1661-1715) was the Age of Louis XIV. France enjoyed a political, military, and cultural ascendancy and Europe lived in apprehension of what the Sun King at Versailles might do. What he did do was to wield the scepter of an absolute monarch with regal assurance, preside majestically over a brilliant but sycophantic court, and intimidate his neighbors by a succession of wars recklessly pursued in the belief that they would add to his glory. The admiration accorded French literature, art, and architecture during the reign of the Grand Monarque was fully merited. The cultural primacy renaissance Italy displayed in the 15th century, the wealth and grandeur Spain achieved in the 16th, passed to France in the 17th. With some seventeen million inhabitants, France held one-fifth the population of Europe and was a superpower among powers. Firmly (though ponderously) governed by a hardworking king, who was served by able ministers (Colbert, Louvois) and renowned commanders (Cond^, Turenne, Vauban), France threatened to dominate Europe. neighboring governments reacted by forming coalitions to resist the French threat, and Louis’ reign was marred by four destructive wars, each longer, costlier, and more extensive than the one before. Louis was personally responsible for the most critical decisions of his reign. From 1661, when Mazarin died, he presided in person over the royal councils, setting Europe an example of complacent royal absolutism which lesser monarchs tried to imitate. To provide a fitting stage, Louis had magnificent and costly palace and ark constructed at Versailles. To :eep the French nobles subservient he summoned them to court and rewarded them with light duties and V large incomes. The real power he kept to, himself or delegated to sub





Industries increased in hxnnber and variety despite opposition of the guilds and government regulation which served often to impede rather than accelerate development. Commerce was still hindered by poor methods of transportation and governmental restrictions. The ‘putting-ouf system and its sweatshop conditions continued to dominate the textile industry. The first of many technological improvements in England foreshadowed new developments in industrial production. Abram Darby successfully produced coke as fuel for smelting iron, 1709; John Kay invented the flying-shuttle used in weaving, 1733; and spinning macl^es were patented, 1738. Chartered compomes monopolized and expanded colonial trade.





survivals of feudalism were abolished, church lands nationalised, and Louis XVI dethroned and guillotined. Tho newly proclaimed French Bopublic found itself at vfat with most ol Europe but defied its enemies audaciously (War ol the First Coalition, 1792-97. War of the Second Coalition, 1798-1800), = In America the Thirteen (now indcpondonl) Colonics adopted a federal consutution (1788) and became the United Stales of America. 2 In Asia the British controlled most of eastern India and Ceylon by 1800. China under Ch ion Lung (1736-98) successfully discouraged European penetration, and Japan preserved its self-imposed isolation.





America The second half of the I8ih cenlurjwas a critical period that changed Anieriran destinies. Complacent after their triumphs in the Seven Years’ War, the British asserted tlieir naval supremacy with arrogance, antagonizing European powers. At the same lime, to reduce war indebtedness they taxed their American colonists more heavily. With French power in America brohen (after 1763) the Thirteen Colonics felt less dependent on British protection and raised the cry ‘no taxation without representation. The Quebec Act (177 1) which expanded French Canada (notv under British control) to the Ohio River angered the Englislt colonists. They protested (First continental Congress at philadelphia, 177 1) and resisted British attempts at repression (Lexington and Concord, 1775). The Second continental Congress (1776) adopted a declaration of independence, appointed George Washington to command the American forces, and attempted (unsuccessfully) to conquer Canada. British reinforcements turned the odds against tlic Americans despite their victor) at Saratoga (1777) until France (1778), Spain (1779), and Holland (1780) entered the war against Britain, and Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark fonned a League of Armed Neutrality to protect their.shipping from British naval interference. With French troops and ships (under Lafayette, Rodtambeau, Dc Grasse) supporting them, the Americans forced Cornwallis to surrender at Torktown (1781). negotiations for pe.-u c were conducted at Paris between the Thineen States (loosely united under.Artides of confederation since 1777). the French, and the British. The United States gained complete sovereignty and independence (Treaty of P.-iris. 1783). ^UNITED STATES. The years from 17SS to 1787 were a critical period for the new nation. The Artides of confederation failed to grant adequate powers to a central (federal) govemconstitutional Convention





Western Europe ENGLAND. Enclosure movement reached its height with passage of acts by Parliament making system general throughout country; loss of Thirteen American Colonies of North America and doctrine of laissez-faire urged by Smith led England to change her commercial policy toward her remaining colonies and to discard mercantilism; coal industry grew rapidly, iron exportation began; Pitt introduced income tax, 1799; Robert Owen successfully experimented with social reforms (New Lanark, Scotland, 1800); Malthus, economist and social philosopher, wrote famed study. Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798; Blackstone, outstanding jurist, published commentaries on Law of England, 1764-69; John Howard secured passage of Act of 1777 providing for better prison conditions. FRANCE. aristocracy, comprising 2 per cent of population, controlled more than two-thirds of the landed wealth; social injustice, arbitrary imprisonment under the letters de cachet, elements of feudalism evidenced in corvee (enforced labor on roads), tallies (land tax), and tithes (tenths to Church) kept peasants condition desperate and led to Revolution; Turgot, finance minister, tried to reform corrupt finances, break guild system that strangled trade, introduce economy in government, and tax the privileged classes; failed; Necker issued Compte Rendu, report on financial conditions, 1781, dismissed; during Revolution, assignats, paper currency, issued by National Assembly to redeem public debt and counterbalance deficit; freedom of trade introduced, 1791; power of guilds reduced; slavery abolished in colonies, 1794. ITALY. Cesare Beccaria, economist and jurist, anticipated theories of Smith and Malthus; important in criminal jurisprudence; advocated reforms that gained international acceptance. PORTUGAL. Great earthquake at Lisbon, 1755, accompanied by fire and flood, killed thousands.





Central and Eastern Europe GERMANY. Humboldt, Alexander von. Naturalist; explored (with Bonpland) Central, South America, 17791804; wrote about voyages; established use of isotherms; studied increase of magnetic intensity from equator to poles; Cosmos (5 vols.), 1845-52, excellent formulation of known facts into uniform conception of nature. Gauss, Karl. mathematician, astronomer; disquisitiones arithmeticae, 1801, theory of numbers; method of solving binomial equations; geometry of cuiwed surfaces; method of least squares; gauss, unit of magnetic induction; contributed to electrodynamics; computed orbit of planetoids. Goethe, Wolfgang von. Discovered intermaxillary bone in man; interested in morphology, evolution. Seebeck, Thomas. Physicist; thermoelectricity; demonstrated use of thermoelement for measuring temperature; studied heat radiation; polariscope. Chladni, Ernst. Physicist; ‘father of modern acoustics’; method of counting number of variations corresponding with each note; vibrating plates. Bode, Johann. 1747-1826. Astronomer; known for uranographia, 1801, collection of star maps; B ode’s law, formula relative distance from planets to sun. Grotefend, George. 1775-1853. archaeologist, philologist: deciphered cuneiform inscriptions of Persia. NORWAY. Abel, Niels. Mathematician; known for proving impossibility of solving radicals; important research on elliptical functions. ESTONIA. Pander, Christian. Biologist; monograph, beautifully illustrated, on embryology of chick (crediting Wolff) 1817; first to distinguish germ-layers. SWITZERLAND. Candolle, Augustin de. Botanist; foundation of systematic botanical classification by making morpholog)’ the key. United States Robert Fulton built first commercially successful steamboat, Clermont, 1807, ^sing English engine.





United States Einstein, Albert. Great germanamerican theoretical physicist; famous for tlieory of relativity, 1905 (completed 1916); suggested matter and energy might prove to be equivalent; proposed now famed formula, E = mc2; Nobel Prize for photoelectric tlieory, 1921; unified field theory, 1929-50; developed ‘quantum tlieory’ of specific heat. Millikan, Robert. Physicist, educator; Nobel Prize, 1923, for measurement of charge of electron and for work on photoelectric effect; studies of cosmic rays. Tesla, Nikola. Pioneer in field of high-tension electricity; inventor. Steinmetz, Charles. Discovered law of hysteresis; practical method of making calculations of alternating currents; built generator that produced artificial lightning; engineer. Richards, Theodore. Chemist; Nobel Prize for work in determining atomic weights of elements, 1914; compressibility of atoms. Langmuir, Irving. 1881-1957. Theory of atomic structure; atomic-hydrogen welding; contributed to development of radio vacuum tube; Nobel Prize, 1932, surface tension. Miller, Dayton. 1866-1941. Physicist; studied measurements of sound, light; successfully photographed and projected sound waves. Morgan, Thomas H. 1866-1945. Zoologist; performed notable experiments with fruit flies (genus drosophila), showing inherited characteristics linked and carried from generation to generation through the chromosomes; Nobel Prize, 1933. Funk, Casimir. 1884Biochemist; considered discoverer of vitamins. De Forest, lee. 1873Pioneer in development of wireless telegraphy, sound pictures, television; first highpowered naval radio stations; called ‘father of radio’; over 300 patents. Boas, Franz. 1858-1942. Notable anthropologist; influential. Novy, Frederick. 1864-1957. Bacteriologist; important public health stations; one of first to demonstrate an anaphylotox in (later histamine).