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Rome Social Organization. Constant struggle between two classes in early society: patricians, landowners, consuls, and senators, and plebeians, yeomen, pe.asants, and artisans. Roman Law. ]us civile developed from Twelve Tables; codifying of ancient, written Laws, gradually amended and interpreted by praetors, jurists; concept of justice based on reason, not custom, and law of nature, reflecting influence of Stoic philosophy; international law, jus gentium, evolved as empire expanded; recognized universal principles; involved in problems of foreign property, sales, contracts; became part of civil law; legal system greatest Roman intellectual contribution; most complete elaboration of right of private property prior to modern law. Land Problems. Basically agricultural, Roman economy was severely strained by Punic Wars; devastated Italian countryside, affecting small landowners particularly; these and later wars depleted rural labor supply; domestic grain market ruined by cheaper Sicilian imports; debts forced many to abandon land for cities; large owners increased estates near Rome and in provinces, tlirough addition of public lands; invested in new crops, such as olives, figs, vineyards; system based on slave labor. Commerce. Extended by Roman conquests; new products, variety of luxuries, became available; life of wealthy reached height of success, extravagance. New Social Classes. Nobiles, of consular descent, monopolized wealth, power; equites (equestrians or knights), businessmen who profited by government contracts, transport, leases of state-owned resources; alternately allied or competed with senatorial aristocracy; non-Roman group, mostly Italians, now citizens without economic or political status, merged with poor citizens of Rome.





RELIGION Asia CHINA. Mencius (Meng-tse) Great leader; preached Confucian doctrines; Book of Mencius, became a classic; taught good life could best be promoted by good government; rulers should be men of intellect; recognized right of revolution when king failed to benefit people; denounced profitmotive and war; kept confucianism alive in China. Chuang-tse and Lieh-tse were outstanding exponents of Taoism; mysticism, search for spiritual and ethical truth through companionship with nature; confucianism taught principle of being ‘true to one’s nature’; etliical humanism stressed; d.eveloped from a system of ethics for proper living into a theolog); basic state philosophy; Taoism in temporary decline; Buddhism introduced. INDIA. Buddhism became organized religion during reign of Asoka, a convert; spread widely, missionaries sent to all parts of India, Ceylon, much of Asia. Buddhism split into two schools, Mahayana (great or big vessel) and Hinayana (small vessel); Mahayana, larger group, elaborated ritual and theology with symbols and mythology; asserted all can share in redemption through compassion. counter-reformation in Hinduism introduced native gods into Vedic pantheon; trinity, Brahma deified. Europe GREECE. hellenistic religion individual matter; city-state and its gods lost power; Eleusinian, Orphic mysteries, new cults gained many adherents, satisfying yearning for personal salvation. ROME. Greek and eastern influence increased in strength; Greek gods and myths adopted, added to state religion; Greek and Eastern mystery cults of Dionysus, Cybele, Attis, Isis and Mithra introduced largely by soldiers, traders, and slaves; cult of Caesar, oriental idea of deifying kings, instituted; Augustus attempted religious revival, rebuilt temples.





During the first two centuries of the empire tlie peoples ruled by Rome enjoyed exceptional order and increasing prosperity. Security of life and property and safe communications favored trade and cities grew and flourished. But despite its military, legal, and administrative virtues the Roman s)’stem was unprogressive. There was a lack of initiative; few novel ideas, inventions, or technological improvements were developed. Though wcaltliy Romans demanded the luxuries of the East the empire produced little the peoples of India or China wanted in exchange so there was a steady ’hemorrhage’ of gold and silver from Rome to the eastern markets. In tlie 3rd century evidences of decline appeared. Apathy, a declining birthrate, impoverishment of the lower classes, increasing taxes, and a ‘loss of nerve’ all reflected this decline, but its fundamental causes arc still a matter of debate. For consolation many people turned to other-worldly religions, especially the new and spreading faith of Christianity. At the opening of tlie 4th century Diocletian tried to reorganize the imperial authority to check tlie decline, but increased despotism failed to provide a solution. constantine (308-337 ad) recognized that tlie empire was breaking into an eastern and western half and established a second capital at Constantinople. By 378 barbarmn tribes had broken the rliine-danubc frontier. The ’Eastern Empire’ survived; tlie Western half disintegrated. Rome itself was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 and by tlie Vandals in 455.





empire and was recognized in the 4th century as the official religion. Alter the western hall ol the empire collapsed the successive bishops oi Home (popes) look over some of the administrative duties of the vanished Caesars. The unity and centralized administration of China, achieved under the Ch in Dynasty (c221-202 Bc), continued • under the Han Dynasty (202 bc-220 ad). Then come four centuries (c220-618 ad) of renewed division and dvU war. In India the disintegration of the Mauryan empire in the 2nd century bc was followed by a period of division. About 320 AD northern India was reunited under the Gupta emperors.





Charaka. Great physician, scholar; autlior, Samhita (medical encyclopedia) based on 5th century bc work of Sushruta; listed medicinal herbs; described many surgical operations: cataract, hernia, Caesarian section, etc.; 121 surgical instruments; Sushruta first to have performed skin graft; amputation; suggested sterilization by fumigation; Charaka recognized existence of epidemics; authoritative tvork still used in India. Technology. Indians skilled in processes of tanning, dyeing, bleaching, cement-making: soaps and glass; invented fast-color dyes, discovered indigo; advanced metallurgy, may have produced first steel. Roman Empire Pfolemy (Claudius Ptolemeus) alexandrian astronomer, mathematician, geographer; geocentric theory of universe accepted by M^estern world for centuries: laid foundation for spherical trigonometry in study of chords; catalogued 1,028 stars; chief work, later translated as Almagest, completely summarizes ancient oriental and mediterranean mathematical and astronomical learning; remarkable knowledge of location, especially of India and Africa; first geographical use of parallels and meridians. Galen (Claudius Galenus) of Pergamum. Greatest physician of Roman times; restored hippocratic concepts in treatment of disease; explained respiratory system, cranial nerves; increased knowledge of anatomy and physiology; harmonized theories with philosophy; developed influential theory of psychology; based treatment on humors’, (hippocrates’ bodily properties or qualities); from Galen’s 13 types, later authors derived classic types: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancliolic. Celsus, Aulus Cornelius. Author, important medical treatise; theory based on atom concept; disease caused by disturbance of atoms; significant champion of equal importance of theory and practice.





c5 70-632, Prophet and founder of Islam, early 7 th century 5ran, sacred book of Islam •eat schism, began 680, Sunnites or Orthodox Moslems, recognized Omayyad caliphate while Shi’ites recognized Ali, mohammed’s cousin, son-in-law, as leader jctrinal differences; acceptance of ijma, rejected by Shi’ites -Bukhari, Mohammed





Europe FRANCE. The History of Griselda, 1393, earliest known serious secular miracle play in French language. Basoche, Clercs de la. Guild of clerks, Parlement of Paris, formed early in 14th century, played great part in development of Frencli stage; farces, morality plays, comedies, and satires performed; Adam de la Halle’s Jcu de la Feuillee, 1260, first comedy.’ Rutebeuf. cl230-c85. Wrote early miracle play, Le Miracle de Theophile. Miracle plays performed at Notre Dame. Middle East Tayf al-Khayal fi Ma rifat Khayal al-Zill by Muhammad ibn-daniyal alkhuza’i al-Mawsili, 1310, only extant dramatic poetry of Islam. MUSIC Europe FRANCE. Vitry, Philippe de. Roman Catholic prelate, poet, composer; authority on musical theory; author, Ars nova, dealing with various aspects of the ‘New Art of music; most important influence of period; developed principle of binary rhythm; helped free music from demanded adherence to the six ‘rhythmic modes’ of Ars antique, which had recognized only triple rhythm; mote three other treatises dealing with rhythm, notation, and harmony. Machaut, Guillaume De. Composer, poet; Canon, Rheims Catliedral from 1333; composed Mass for voices, one of earliest polyphonic settings of Mass; composed 23 motets, 45 ballades, many other secular works following rules laid down by de Vitry’s Ars nova. De Muris, Johannes. Musicologist; important musical theorist of 14th century; treatise. Speculum musice, outstanding work, divided into seven parts; first dealt with theory, last two with practice of music; attacked de Vitry, whose ideas he considered too revolutionary; represented conservatives.





The, rise of centralized territorial states under secular monarchs prepared the way for the revolt against papal supremacy. Disputes between these ambitious monarchs, who claimed supremacy within their domains, and the Roman pontiffs who claimed supremacy over all christendom, grew sharper as the states grew stronger. According to medieval political theory kings were accountable to God, and as the pope was God’s earthly representative the pope could rebuke a wicked king and absolve his subjects from their allegiance to him. Inevitably, monarchs sought to escape from this papal overlordship and the Protestant revolt opened, a way of escape. furthermore, the rulers of the rising centralized states tvanted greater power and more taxes. In areas where protestantism triumphed the monasteries could be dissolved and much of the wealth of the Church confiscated by the state government. With these considerations in mind it is easy to see why, in the Protestant reformation, zeal to reform and purify Christian teachings mingled with more selfish and material motives. Half the rulers in the Germanies (despite tire opposition of Charles V) adopted Lutheranism. The monarclis of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden rejected the supremacy of the pope and set up national (Lutheran) churches. Henry VIII of England broke with the papacy and parliament recognized him as head of a (reformed) Anglican Church. In switzerland a religious reform movement started by Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) came under the direction of John Calvin (1509-64) and Cal-/ vinism also won numerous converts in the Germanies, the netherlands, and Scotland. It also made headway in France, preparing the way there for subsequent civil and religious wars. Spain, Italy, and the Austrian lands remained Catholic.





Europe Erasmus, Desiderius. Foremost scholar of day; taught at Cambridge, England, 1510-14, attempted to substitute true classical knowledge for empty scholasticism of time; Latin, international language; recognized importance of history, geography, science. Bugenhagen, Johann. German Protestant reformer and educator; called ‘Father of German volksschule, reorganized schools and churches in nortliern Germany, carrying out Luther’s ideas; also reorganized University of Copenhagen and Danish churches and schools as Lutheran institutions. melanchthon, Philipp. Humanist, interested in Latin secondary schools; reorganized schools of soutliern and central Germany, carrying out ideas of Luther with University of Wittenberg as center; Report or Book of Visitation, first scliool survey report. Linacre, Thomas (or Lynaker) English humanist and physician; founded Royal College of Physicians in London, 1518; wrote Latin grammar; translated Aristotle and Galen into Latin; founded readerships in medicine at Oxford and Cambridge. Budaeus, Guillaume. Celebrated humanist scholar of France; royal librarian, 1522; modem research methods. Vives, Juan Luis. Spanish humanist, philosopher, logician; De causis corruptarum artium, one of the outstanding works on education, 1531. Dolet, Etienne. French scholar and printer; issued commentarii linguae latinae, 1538, great influence on French Renaissance; translations of Bible and Axiochus into French issued by his press resulted in his execution. Reuchlin, Johann. 1455-1522. German humanist and scliolar; first Hebrew grammar written by Christian, 1506; led humanists vs. clericals in opposing burning of Hebrew books; Greek translations. Colet, John. English theologian, ■ classical scholar, Iiumanist; introduced new learning into English secondary schools; founded St. Paul s,





Middle East OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The Turkish naval posver in the mediterranean suffered a severe defeat when a Christian fleet (Spanish, Venetian, and papal vessels) destroyed an Ottoman fleet off Lepanto (navpactos) , in Greek waters (1571). Despite heavy losses the Turks speedily rebuilt their navy. On their eastern frontier, they warred with Persia and occupied mesopotamia, but their success there declined as Shah Abbas the Great (15871629) strengthened the Persian army. Asia INDIA. Akbar (1556-1605) greatest of tlie Mogul emperors, reunited northern India, won Bengal from the Afghans, and conquered Gujarat. His tolerant religious policy reconciled his non-Moslem subjects. CHINA. The reign of the Ming emperor Shen Tsung (1573-1620) was marked by high scholarship and culture, but the Ming Dynasty, like others before it, was beginning to lose energy. Attacks by the Mongols in the nortlmest and of the Japanese in Korea were repelled with difficulty. Christian missionaries (Matteo Ricci) Avere tolerated but made relatively few converts. The Christian claims to exclusive religious truth alienated Chinese thinkers %vho tolerated various beliefs. Tibetan Buddhism gained ground (the Mongols recognized the Dalai Lama as the ‘universal’ lama) JAPAN. Trade and piracy made the Japanese powerful in the 16th century, and the years from 1568 to 1600 brought closer political integration. Nagasaki, opened to foreign trade, became a leading center. Hideyoshi, a successful general, succeeded (15821598) in unifying Japan, and decided (1597) to expel the Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries as trouble-makers.





1648, recognized independence of the Republic of the United Provinces Spain. Declined under Philip III





Central Europe HOIY ROMAN EMPIRE. Left liaU Catholic and half Protestant after the Refonnation. with both religious groups eager to dominate, the empire niaintainetl a precarious internal stability until 1618. Tlicn came tlie devastating Thirty Years’ ^\ ar which had four periods. The Bohemian Period (1618-25) ended svith (Catholic) Lraperor Ferdinand 11 (1619-S7) victorious and Uie Protestant king of Bohemia, Frederick V. in exile. Christian IV of Denmark intervened to aid the Gcnnnn protestants but die Danhit Period (1625-29) also ended with the Catholics ahead. The Swedish Period (16S0-35) brought in Gustavus Adolpiuis of Sweden, who defeated the imperialist (Catholic) forces under.Albert of wallenstein at Liitzen (16S2) but died on the field. wallenstein was murdered by some of his own officers (1634) but the war continued in a French Period (1635-48). During its later stages ilie war became primarily a hapsburg-bourbon d)-nastic struggle. The Peace of ivestphalia weakened the Holy Roman Empire by making the Gcnnan slates rirtu.nlly independent. France and Sweden gained territory. The Swiss and Dutch republics were recognized as sovereign states (hitherto tire Hapsburgs h.ad declined to concede this faa). The religious outcome left the (now shadowy) Holy Roman Empire divided, like Europe itself, into CatlioUc and Protestant camps. The war bad cost millions of lives and laid half Gennany waste but had failed to heal the religious schism that divided Christendom.





Americas Increase in population, establishment of new colonies, development of trade characterized period; agriculture remained dominant, with increasing number of farmers owning land; slavery legally recognized, Virginia, 1661; Navigation Acts gave English merchants monopoly of colonial trade from 1663; strict laws regulating activities of slaves passed, 1687; witchcraft trials in Salem, 1692; German settlers of pennsylvania established first paper mill using linen rags, 1690; first paper money issued and checks used in Boston, Massachusetts. Africa Dutch founded Capetown, 1652; Blake destroyed pirate fleet of Bey of Tunis, 1655; English Royal African Company founded, 1660, chartered, 1663; Dutch purchased Swedish colonies on Gold Coast, 1664-67; English Guinea Company merged with Royal African Company and granted monopoly of slave trade until 1698; First brandenburgian expedition to West Africa, 1680, resulted in establishment of factories on Gold Coast, 1683; French Guinea Company formed, occupied Madagascar, 1686; French Huguenots settled Cape of Good Hope, 1687-89; African trade opened to all British subjects, 1698.





FRANCE. Fermat, Pierre de. Mathematician; founder, modern theory of numbers and calculus of probabilities; shared in invention of new analytic geometry; isagoge, 1679, recognized a principle in optics known as Fermat s Law. Picard, Jean. Astronomer; first to apply telescope to measurement of angles; accurate measure of a degree of the meridian; established figures in longitude and latitude important to Newton in calculations of gravitation; helped found Paris Observatory; connaissance des Temps, 1679-83 (5 vols.). Roberval, Gilles de. Mathematidan; originated method for constructing tangents and determining area of cycloid; invented balance. Cassini, Giovanni (Jacques). Astronomer; discovered four satellites of Saturn, described rings; determined rotation of Mars; aided in solar parallax determination; daimed systematic observation of zodiacal light. Delisle, Guillaume. Geographer, cartographer; important world map, eliminating error of Ptolemy; important in modern cartography. ITALY. Malpighi, Marcello. Anatomist, pioneer in use of microscope; valuable observations on structure of plants and animals; proved Harvey’s theory of blood circulation, obsendng in addition the movement of blood through capillaries; recorded structure of lung in De pnlmonibus, 1661; Viscera, 1666, details of other organs; Anatome plantarum, 1675-79, structure of flowering plants; treatise on silkworm considered first monograph on invertebrate; first description of development of seed and embryo; considered a founder of animal and plant histology. Borellt, Giovanni. Physicist, astronomer; first to point out parabolic paths of come«; considered real founder of biophysics; chief interest, animal motion, laying groundwork for muscular, meclianics. Redi, Francesco. Naturalist; pioneer in experimental entomology; attacked theory of spontaneous generation, 1668.





1714 England gained Gibraltar, Minorca, newfoundland, Acadia, and title to Hudson Bay region Savoy gained Sicily (exchanged for Sardinia, 1720); Duke of Savoy took title King of Sardinia i’hilip V recognized as King of Spain and colonies





Central Europe NETHERLANDS. Boerhaave, Hermann. Physician, chemist;, leading practitioner, teacher; introduced clinical teadiing: instituiiones medicae (Practice or Teaching of Medicine), 1708, introduced term ‘physiology’ in modem sensed established it as an academic discipline in medical curriculum; held digestion was more in nature of solution than fermentation; Elementa chemiae (Elements of Chemistry), 1732, founded organic chemistry. switzerland, Euler, Leonhard. swiss-german mathematician; trigonometry given first time in modern, notation; formulated idea of function, fundamental in pure and applied modern mathematics; first systematic treatment of calculus of variations, 1744; only physicist of 18th century to advance undulatory theory; hydrodynamics; highly influential., Bernoulli, Daniel. Swiss founder of mathematical physics; recognized im, portance of principle of conservation of force anticipated in part by Huygens; solved equation known as bernoulli’s equation; hydrodyiiamica, 1738, advanced kinetic theory of gases and. fluids. ^ Bernoulli, Jacques. Mathematician; improved differential calculus; solved isoperimetrical problem; discovered properties of logarithmic spiral; work with brother, Jean. Fahrenheit, Gabriel. Physicist, improved thermometer by substituting mercury for alcohol; introduced two fixed points in scale, zero being temperature of mixture of ice and salt; scale. WEDEN. Swedenborg, Emanuel. paleontologist; modem theory of molecular magnetics; crystallography; mercu^ air pump; published first bwedish scientific journal, Daedalus nyperboreusj 1716. Astronomer; incentigrade thermomeadopted; directed observa measurements in polar





Western Europe FRANCE. Lavoisier, Antoine. Founder o£ modem cliemistry; law of conservation of matter (mass); theor)’ of combustion ended pitlogiston theory; Traitd eUmcnlaire de chimie (Elements of Chemistry) 1789, outstanding work, first modern textbook on cliemistry: with others, developed new chemical nomenclature. Lagrange, Joseph. Eminent theoretical mathematician; cl.assic treatise, Mdcanique analytique, 1797; created calculus of variations; systematized differential equations; methods mainly analytical. Coulomb, Charles. Physician; research on magnetism; torsion balance; invented magnetometer; unit of quantity (coulomb) of electricity; named for him. Boflfon, Georges. Naturalist; Histoire Naturelle (44 vols.) 1749-1804; tpoques dc la Nature, 1778. ITALY. Volta, Count Alessandro. Pliysicist; pioneer in electricity; great discovery, successive layers of copper and zinc in electric pile’ produce continuous electric current; volt, electrical unit, named for him. spallaniani, Lazzaro. Naturalist, biologist; known for experiments on digestion, 1782, proving gastric juice is.secreted by stomach; rejected theory of spontaneous generation. Morgagni, Giovanni. Anatomist; founder of modem pathology; important observations on pneumoni.i, meningitis, s)’philis; Seats and Causes of Disease, 1761, important contribution. Galvani, Luigi. 1737-98. Physician; experiments witii frog s leg showed contracting of muscle and nen-e at toudi of charged metal; electrical icmrs derived from his name. SWITZERLAND. Haller, Albrechf. Physiologist; autlior of outstanding work, Elementa physiologiae (Elements of pjiysiology), 1757; great achievement, establishment of doctrine of muscular irritability (contractility) of muscle u ssuc, recognized as fundamental property of living matter; racdtanics of respiration; neurology.





1819 Law of 1825 recognized trade unions Ricardo, David





Western Europe ENGLAND. Debt and budget continued rise to pay for armies, aid allies, expand navy, dockyards, shore defenses; finances remained sound; profitable trade enabled Britain to meet war costs and almost monopolize ocean commerce; enclosure movement forced small farmers, who could not buy expensive equipment, from land into cities, creating cheap industrial labor; Corn Law, 1815, virtually halted grain imports, gave more protection to landlords, but added to workers’ bread price; ‘golden age’ of business lasted until after 1815 when world-wide depression overtook England and resulted in passage of Coercion Acts, including suspension of habeas corpus for first time in English history; child labor legislation improved; resumption of cash payments by Bank of England, 1821, deflated currency; trade unions recognized, 1825, permitting attempts at wage and hour legislation but prohibiting use of strike; Peel revised antiquated criminal code, 1823-25. FRANCE. Code Napoleon, 1804 and later, guaranteed legal equality, property rights; inheritance laws introduced during Revolution; Berlin decrees established ‘continental System,’ economic boycott of Britain, 1806; commercial law code introduced, 1807; following Bourbon restoration, 1814, industry suffered heavily from British competition; Law of Indemnity, 1825, compensated the nobles for loss of their lands during Revolution, at expense of holders of government bonds, largely upper bourgeoisie. SWITZERLAND. Suffered economic crisis; no longer protected by continental blockade, unable to compete with English textiles; cantons divided on question of common customs policy.





Western Europe FRANCE. The French Revolution left the French people divided (the Two Frances ) and the restoration of the Bourbons (1814) proved temporary. Louis XVIII died in 1824. His brother Charles X, who favored the Church and the old aristocracy, was overthrown by a revolution (1830). He was replaced by a Bourbon of a collateral line, Louis Philippe of Orleans, who ruled as a ‘citizen king’ and favored the middle classes (Bourgeois Monarcliy, 1830-48). The spread of industrialism, which multiplied the city proletariat, encouraged socialist doctrines. In 1848 discontented republicans and socialists raised a revolt and drove out Louis Philippe. The 2nd French Republic (proclaimed 1848) was marred by an insurrection of the workers (June Days). In tlie subsequent balloting (December) Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I) was elected president by a large majority. NETHERLANDS. The Belgians, dissatisfied by their union with tlie Dutch, revolted against William I, King of the United netherlands, and Belgium tvas recognized as a sovereign state. SWITZERLAND. Disputes between liberal cantons and tlie conservative (largely Catholic and rural) cantons provoked a civil war (1847) and the adoption of a new federal constitution w’itlt a stronger central government. ITALY. An awakening of Italian nationalism (risorgimenio) and resentment against Austrian influence spurred a number of ill-conccrtcd revolts (Naples, Milan, Venice, Rome) in 1848. The Austrians rallied, and defeated the Sardinian army, and die briefly proclaimed Italian republics w’cre overthrown in die reaction of 1849.





Central Europe GERMANY. Helmholtz, Hermann. Versatile scientist; extended application of law of conservation of energy, and formulated it mathematically, 1847; henceforth, energyconsidered constant and indestructible; thermodynamics and electrodynamics; pioneer in physiological optics. Ohm, Georg. Physicist; established quantitative relation between electric current and electromotive force in same conductor, 1827: ohm, practical unit of electrical resistance. Schleiden, Matthias. Botanist; pioneer in development of cell theory; photogenesis, plant tissues composed of cells, 1838; importance of nucleus. Muller, Johannes. Founder of scliool of mechanistic physiology; study of nert ous system; founder of scientific medicine in Germany; law of specific nerve energies,’ 1826. Hofmeister, Wilhelm. 1824-77. Botanist: demonstrated alternation of generations in flowering plants. Virchow, Rudolph. 1821-1902. Pathologist; founder of cellular pathology; versatile. AUSTRIA. Doppler, Christian. 180353. mathematician, physicist; Doppler s principle, measuring motion of stars, important in astronomy; formulated, 1842. BELGIUM. Quetelet, Adolphe. statistician, astronomer; one of first to apply mathematical statistics to social study of man (sociology): most important work, A Treatise on Man, 1835. DENMARK. Steenstrup, Johann. ardiaelogist, geologist; important work. On the alternation of generations, 1841. SWEDEN. Berzelius Jons. Chemist; developed modern system of lettersymbols, formulas in chemistry; analyzed numerous chemical compounds; recognized effect named catalysis; prepared highly accurate table of atomic weights. SWITZERLAND. Naegeli, Karl. 181791. Botanist, Memoir on the Nuclei, 1844^6, studies of cells, making distinction between nuclear material and protoplasm.





France. Freedom of speech and press1881 Trade Unions recognized





GENERAL. World wide trade with Britain retaining lead; nine-tenths of financial transactions in international market conducted in pounds sterling, 1871-1914. Europe’s population increased almost 50 per cent; 25 million Europeans migrated to the United States, 1871-1914. ENGLAND. First employers’ Liability Act, 1880, compensated workers for injuries incurred which were not their own fault; Irish Acts, 1881-91, included Land Court to fix rents, designed to protect peasants’ tenure and allow them compensation for selfmade improvements (succeeded only in reducing rents); Land Purchase Act of 1891 allowed tenant to borrow from government to purchase land; Sidney and Beatrice Webb founded the Fabian Society, 1884; slum clearance began with housing for workers, 1890; Miners’ Federation of Great Britain, 1888, marked extension of trade unionism to less skilled workers; National consumers’ League, 1890 (in U. S., 1899), organized to promote better conditions for workers by encouraging the purchase of articles made and sold under good working conditions. FRANCE. Trade unions recognized by law, 1884; criminal law modified; right of divorce recognized, 1884; creation of more hygienic conditions and medical care for labor, 1893; 10-hour day, Sunday free, and more protection for women and children. Act of 1892, most labor unions joined General confederation of Labor, 1895; Workmen s compensation Law passed, 1898. SPAIN. Economic development of country led to increasing labor unrest; under liberal prime minister, Sagasta, 1886-90, civil code and introduction ot trial by jury, more liberal press an association laws., u j ITALY. Bank of Italy established, 1893; law forbade state banks to advance loans on real estate, limited tlieir powers of discount, reduced paper money maximum; limited attempts to better economic conditions an. balance budget.





Whistler, James McNeill. Highly individual decorative impressionist; influenced by Courbet, velasquez’ color, and Japanese; expatriate, living most of his life in England; known for ‘arrangements, ’ ‘symphonies, ’ and ‘nocturnes’; concerned primarily with color, form, and design, elegance of style; famous for arrangement in Grey and Black (his mother). Nocturne in Black and Gold, The Falling Rocket; portrait of Carlyle; Thames series of etchings. Eakins, Thomas. Objective Realist; interested in science; painted famous Clinic of Dr. Gross, made studies of arrested motion; unconventional, pessimistic interpretation of life; penetrating portraits; The Chess Players, Max Schmitt in a Single Scull.; Ryder, Albert. outstanding artist; grandeur of design; small canvases; luminosity, subtle color, depth of feeling; moonlight and sea predominate; highly imaginative, atmospheric; Toilers of the Sea, Death on a Pale Horse. Sargent, John Singer. distinguished portrait artist; brilliant treatment of texture; unimaginative, facile. Homer, Winslow. Objective Realist; late works outstanding; heroic studies of men at work; famed marines;, charming water colors; imaginative response to nature; The northeaster, The Fox Hunt, Breezing Up. Sullivan, Louis. Superior architect; important in evolution of modern architecture in U. S.; stressed princip e, that outward form should express function of building; ornamentation highly original; unrecognized by con





Americas uiinSD STATES. With the Philipfte, Guam, and Hawaii to defend dtcf 1898,. the American Republic iitdeti an expanded navy and President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-09) iBgCtl its development. When Colombia delayed ratification of an accord for a P,inama Canal the province of Panama (conveniently) revolted and he United States,.avith a speed that ■qainted at collusion, recognized it as ndependent, Panama ceded a strip of ami across the isthmus and the United imes opened the canal in 1914. Election ol Woodrow Wilson as insidcnt (1913-21) and of a progresive Congress was follotved by tariff wiudion, financial reform, and stiffer inii-trust legislation. But World War diverted tvilson’s attention and in 91/ die United States declared war ^‘^■™ 2 n)v tpilson’s enunciation of «3te aims (Fourteen Points) aroused mtcniational response and in 1919 ^ea^nded the Versailles Conference nm Nanri a Versailles Treaty (which dnded the Covenant of the LeasS ejected by the United States S jmllusioned by the policies of the esutned tho r American people ^«vtld ^3d Sons f HroSt TStates ot die two Wend•aifen. ^lations remained unf (ig i IV overthrow in ^ subsequent ‘0 occuDv V United ^ across the Rio tnded in u-j...^encan marines also ^^pufalic (iguy 1.. Dominican ^ ’ ‘^«ris. and Co«^’.”S«a (igig), Costa Rica (igjgj





Europe ENGLAND. Education Act of 1902 abolished boards, placing elementary and secondary education in hands of statutory committees of borough and county councils. For first time in England, provision for secondary education was recognized as duty of the state and brought under public control; in five years the number of secondary schools doubled. ITALY. Montessori, Maria. Educator and physician; originator of method of education for pre-school child: first woman to receive medical degree in Italy, 1894; opened first case det bambini (houses for children), Rome, 1907: development of child’s initiative tlirough individual freedom of action, improvement of sense perception through training, and development of coordination through exercises and games; method used in United States and Europe. Gentile, Giovanni. Organizer and Minister of Education, 1922-24; urged self-realization of individual. RUSSIA. Emphasis in education after triumph of communism was placed on need for industrial, scientific, and military progress and schools of engineering, research, science, medicine, and teacher training tvere established: art galleries and museums were opened to the public; large community recreation and adult education centers established; ballet, music, and arts fostered, all dominated by the state ideology. Bogdanov, A. (Alesander Mainovaki). Philosopher; leader in education and ‘proletarian culture’ movement.